Incredible Years Series theoretical based intervention programme

undreamed of Years Series a priori based intervention programmeA promising intervention programme should be theoretical and evidence-based. The unconvincing Years programme, a well- knowing and comprehensive intervention package, has strong theoretical grounds (Webster-Stratton et al., 2001). It was origin in ally invented to treat early onset conduct problems among young children (Webster-Stratton, 2000), accordingly was revised to prevent conduct problems by promoting social competence universally (Webster-Stratton, Reid Stoolmiller, 2008). Children who display high rates of anti-social behavior or aggression atomic number 18 at risk of developing conduct problems (Webster-Stratton Reid, 2009b). It is build that these children experience more(prenominal) peer rejection and non-supportive comments from instructors (Carr, Taylor Robinson, 1991 Webster-Stratton Reid, 2002), and as a result, they dis exchangeable going to school and may display more negative emotions and b ehaviors (Birch Ladd, 1997). This is a vicious cycle which The Incredible Years Series ar aiming to bring it to an end.The Incredible Years programme is not only targeting on children, but too the factors that contribute to the ca utilization of such conduct problems. Webster-Stratton (2005) suggested that a disorganized home environment, in stiff p atomic number 18nting and teachers lack of instrumental classroom management skills were all provocative. Although it is believed that parental influence on childrens social development is the most prominent (Webster-Stratton et al., 2001), past research showed that parent cooking might not be effective enough, as the children only made short-term improvement at home, but not at school (Gresham, 1998 Taylor Biglan, 1998). thitherfore, a multi-faceted intervention project that includes studys for parents, teachers and children is designed (Webster-Stratton, Reid Hammond, 2004). The Incredible Years Series was compared and evaluated against single or paired training programmes longitudinal results indicated that the childrens improvement in the integrated training series were longer-lasting and could sustain beyond the training aspect (Webster-Stratton Hammond, 1997 Webster-Stratton, Reid Hammond, 2001 Webster-Stratton, Reid Stoolmiller, 2008).The Incredible Years Series that address multi-levelled risk factors are strongly supported by a number of theories. In the following, I shall curtly introduce the underlying theories, following by an extensive discussion on how these theoretical underpinnings are applied to the training programmes and the method of deli rattling.Theoretical underpinningsBehaviorism match to the theory of operant conditioning, human beings behavior is contingent upon the consequences (Butterworth Harris, 1994). Behavior is likely to be reproduced if payoff follows (Baer, Wolf Risely, 1968). The presentation of fortifyment not only serves the enlightening function to indicate th e appropriateness of certain actions (Bandura, 1977), but in addition serves the motivational functioning that increases the probability of future production (Bolles, 1979).Childrens development is closely linked to their experiences of reinforcement. It was found that children whose parents who did not reinforce their social skills were weaker in establishing friendly relationships (Patterson Dishion, 1985). In classroom setting, appropriate give of praise and honor improves childrens classroom behavior (Pfiffner, Rosen, OLeary, 1985) and a coherent punishment system is also effective in reducing un in demand(predicate) behaviors (Pfiffner OLeary, 1987).The behavioral approach explains aggression as a result of external reinforcement. Bandura (1973) proposes that by acting aggressively, some children may gain approval, power, or enhancement in self-image that reinforces them to continue.Social learning theoryIn agreement with the behaviorists, social learning theorists also believe in the grandeur of environmental stimuli (e.g. reinforcement), but it is proposed that personal determinants piece of tailnot be ignored (Bandura, 1977). Human behaviors are seen as an outcome of the reciprocal interactions between the persons and their surroundings (Webster-Stratton Reid, 2009b).Bandura (1977) believes that learning depose occur without personally experiencing the action and its consequences. He suggests that most children learn to physical exertion aggression through with(predicate) with(predicate) presenting. The sources can be very diverse, ranging from the circumstances media, peers in schools, to parents aggressive punishment.It was discovered that children with parents who had bad marital relationship had higher probability of developing conduct disorders (Webster-Stratton, 1996). The social learning theory provides a warrant reason when parents are openly criticizing each other, displaying hostility, or producing aggressive behaviors, chi ldren observe and learn to use these coercive tactics to solve conflicts (Patterson, Reid, Jones Conger, 1975).Bandura (1989) also proposed the approximation of self-efficacy. It is define as the personal evaluation of ones ability to accomplish a certain task (Harter, 1993, Kanfer Zeiss, 1983). It is believed that human beings have an innate tendency to strive for social self-efficacy with the parents, and would be discouraged if not successful (Heydenberk Heydenberk, 2007).Perceived self-efficacy influences concourses actions and beliefs, and also ones persistence in difficult times (Bandura Adams, 1977). For people who have high self-efficacy in social aspects, they accept success in forming and maintaining commanding relationship with the others. For people who have low social self-efficacy, they might have experienced failures in interpersonal aspects before (Webster-Stratton Lindsay, 1999). They essay themselves as socially in effective and put less effort in formin g social relationships.Self-efficacy stems from successful experiences, vicarious learning and verbal persuasion (Bandura Adams, 1977). Ones own chance of the probability to get contingent reinforcement (Kanfer Zeiss, 1983) and also the significant others expectations is crucial for the development of self-efficacy (Cooley, 1902). Children understand what their parents or teachers are expecting from them through verbal or non-verbal way (Webster-Stratton, 2006). If they then act according to what others expect from them, they leave be contingent to the others expectations, it is called the self-filling prophecy (e.g. (Lee Bishop, 2008 Strassberg, 1995). The lower the teachers expectations on their students, the less motivation the students have (e.g. Chung Westwood, 2001 Jussim, 1989 Wigfield Harold, 1992). But it is intrustful that children can benefit a lot too when the teachers increase their support and expectations on them (Webster-Stratton, Reid Hammond, 2004).Theor y of the coercive processThe coercive hypothesis generated by Patterson (1982) can be regarded as an extension and integration of behaviorism and social learning theory. It starts with a social interactional perspective and considers childrens aggressive behavior as a product of repeated coercive interactions between a dyad that are stimulated and maintained by the commanding and negative reinforcement (Mesman, et al., 2008). Both members of the dyad should be responsible for the undesirable outcome (Webster-Stratton, 2000).The coercive model sees the importance of parents and teachers interactions with the children. Continuous negative reinforcement and modeling escalates both the childrens and the parents/ teachers coercive attitudes and behaviors (Patterson, Reid, Jones Conger, 1975). A reinforcement pin up occurs when one member of the conflicting pair gives up during the coercive interaction (Webster-Stratton, 2005). From the viewpoint of the member who insists, this can be seen as a negative reinforcement and would encourage him/her to use such coercive tactics again (Webster-Stratton Hancock, 1998). The other member also learns by observation and modelling to escalate their aversive behaviors to ward off further failures. So, the intensity of aggression increases and accumulates after every conflict (Patterson Dishion, 1985). And children may generalize such pattern of conflict managements to other contexts.Parents fall into the reinforcement pin because of their non-contingent parenting skills and ineffective disciplinary strategies to deal with coercive behaviors (Patterson Dishion, 1985). To decrease aggression, one must change the coercive process by stopping the negative reinforcement. Parents and teachers can be taught using more effective and positive discipline methods and no longer triggers childrens aggressive behaviors, and change theirs by modeling.Attachment theoryBowlbys (1997) chemical bond theory emphasizes the importance of a positive parent-child relationship. It is found that children who have a loving and trusting relationship with a major caregiver are more socially competent (Lee, 1990), dapple children who experience hostile contacts from parents lack turned on(p) regulatory and conflict-management strategies (Webster-Stratton, 2005).By using the strange situation, four types of addition styles can be identified, namely secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-ambivalent and insecure-disorganized (Van Ijzendoorn, Bakermans-Kranenburg Sagi-Schwartz, 2006). The attachment pattern highly affects how one thinks and feels (Cummings-Robeau, Lopez Rice, 2009) and has enormous influence on interpersonal functioning (Collins, 1996). Insecure attachment may develop when the parents are being in agreeable, rejecting and insensible to childrens needs (Webster-Stratton Reid, 2009b). Children with this type of attachment may have higher level of aggression and greater difficulty expressing their feelings and t rusting the others (Fagot, 1997). In contrast, securely attached children deliver greater social skills (e.g. Schneider, Atkinson Tardif, 2001 Weinfield, Scoufe, Egeland Carlson, 1999) and feel safe to explore the world as they trust their parents (Juffer, Bakermans-Kranenburg van IJzendoorn, 2008b). erupt social competence (e.g. Schneider, Atkinson Tardif, 2001 Weinfield, Scoufe, Egeland Carlson, 1999).As the kind of attachment formed is closely linked to the parenting skills and parental sensitivity (Bakermans-Kranenburg et al., 2008), Incredible Years aims to improve those elements so as to alter the attachment pattern. Moreover, the attachment theory can also be applied to the teacher-child relationship, as children also have a lot of contact with teachers (Birch Ladd, 1997).The Incredible Years ProgrammeBased on the above theories, Webster-Stratton (1981) developed trinity interlocking programmes, targeting at the parents, teachers and children to promote social compe tence.Parent trainingThe parent series is the most important one (Webster-Stratton et al., 2001), with four sub-sections designed for promoting different skills and accommodating children of different age groups.One of the heaviest elements in this series is the training of parenting skills. In line with the underlying behavioral theory, parents are taught the effective use of reinforcement and punishment. In order to encourage childrens exhibition of prosocial behaviors, parents make good use of reinforcers. They are guided to create a hierarchy of reinforcement that is sew for their own children. Examples of powerful reinforcers are social rewards like attention, smiles and hug and social activities like going to beach together (Neville, Beak King, 1995). The way parents administer the reinforcements is very crucial they have to make sure that the reward is immediate and contingent to specific favorable behaviors and also, children should receive the rewards together with label ed praise. Moreover, parents are reminded that materialistic rewards like money and toys may apparently seem to be incredible reinforcers, but their effectiveness may not be very long-lasting. This kind of tangible rewards is better employ at times when children achieve a particular goal that is clearly defined beforehand (Webster-Stratton Herbert, 1994).Conversely, to reduce childrens aversive behaviors, parents are trained to use a wide range of methods depending on the intensity and type of misbehaviors. Examples are removing existing reinforcements like ignoring and timeout, and rewarding alternative positive behaviors (Neville, Beak King, 1995). Parents are taught not to argue and shout with the children during conflicts, as those naggings are also reinforcing, as they are parental attention. Yet, using ignoring is not easy, as parents have to be consistent and indomitable to neglect the child until the unwanted behavior vanishes (Webster-Stratton, 2006). Or else, parents w ould have been fallen into the reinforcement trap, as suggested by Pattersons (1982) coercive model. Timeout is another good strategy if used probably as it gives both the parents and the children a cooling period. Children are kept isolated for a while, and are deprived of any possible reinforcement, including parents attention (Webster-Stratton Herbert, 1994). exploitation these methods can reduce childrens coerciveness, model children the peaceful way of managing conflicts and still to remain a trusting parent-child relationship. No matter it is the administration of rewards or punishments, one convening that parents must follow is to be consistent. Previous research studies show that unpredictable parenting style seriously affects the parent-child bonding and makes children feel insecure and frustrated (Lee, 1990).To manage discipline, both reinforcements and punishments may be needed (Pfiffner OLeary, 1987). The latter one should be used as last resort (Neville, Beak King, 1995), as punishments may trigger childrens anger, create tension and model unwanted, aggressive behaviors to them. Moreover, punishing for a bad behavior does not give children ideas what an appropriate behavior is. To prevent using punishments, one of the surpass ways is to set limits. Parents can set clear, realistic and positive goals with the children (Webster-Stratton, 2005). With limit setting, coercive process of aggression can be prevented, and childrens experience of reaching goals or keeping within the limits reinforces them, and enhances their social self-efficacy (Webser-Stratton Reid, 2007). According to the expectancy theory, when children recognize that parents have high but reasonable expectations on them, their self-confidence is enhanced and self-fulfilling prophecy predicts that they will try hard to act accordingly.To enhance childrens self-esteem, the support from parents is essential (Harter, 1993). According to Bandura (1977), ones self-efficacy can be imp roved by verbal persuasion. Parents should view their children in a positive way, accept their weakness and encourage them to think positively to the highest degree themselves (Webster-Stratton, 2006). For elder kids, parents can try to involve them more in family meetings, limit settings, or any other activities can require collaborative decisions (Coopersmith, 1967), so that children have more opportunities to express themselves and they might feel confident as becoming a contributor in the family (Webster-Stratton, 2000).The ADVANCE parent training programme focuses on the parents interpersonal skills. It is found that parents who have poor communicate skills and anger management strategies are more likely to have children who suffer from conduct problem (Webster-Stratton Reid, 2009b). This is due to the fact children can observe and may have modeled their parents behaviors (Webster-Stratton, 1996). In this training series, parents are empowered to act as a good role-model of t heir children. And by modeling, parents can foster social skills and desirable learning habits to them (Webster-Stratton, 2005).Teacher trainingThe teacher training series focuses on skills and tactics to manage a large of children (Webster-Stratton et al., 2001), mainly by using reinforcement, managing misbehavior, fostering a warm and safe environment, building positive relationships, teaching social and problem-solving skills (Webster-Stratton, 2004). Although the target is different, the major concepts used in the teacher training are similar to that of the parent one (Webser-Stratton Reid, 2007).To promote positive behaviors, reward again is very important. Besides praising children specifically and enthusiastically, teachers, persons that are familiar with childrens learning progress, should praise children for their improvement instead of the scores they achieve. A consistent rewarding system can enhance childrens self-efficacy and social competence (Webser-Stratton Reid, 2007).Another special component of the teacher training series is the effort of teachers to collaborate with the childrens family (Webster-Stratton, 1999). It is desirable for teachers to visit their students family, so that they can better understand the students home environment and background, and thus to be more sensitive in catering the students special needs. It is as valuable for parents to visit their childrens schools. Teachers in the Incredible Years programme are equipped with techniques to communicate and cooperate effectively with the parents (Webser-Stratton Reid, 2007).Children TrainingThe children training series emphasizes enhancing childrens delirious literacy, social skills, conflict management and problem-solving skills (Webster-Stratton, 2004). Emotional literacy is the ability to recognize, understand, handle and appropriately express emotions (Sharp, 2001 1). This is one of the most fundamental communication skills that children acquire in the Incredible Ye ars student series. Children with conduct problems usually have worse emotional literacy and ability to identity and understand facial cues (Webster-Stratton Reid, 2003).The ability to convey emotional messages are closely linked to ones emotional and social health (Morrison and Matthews, 2006 Nyland, 1999). It was found that enriching emotional literacy can lead to a reduction and delinquency and aggression (Carnwell Baker, 2007) and children with higher emotional literacy have comparatively better social outcomes like having more friends (Hubbard Coie, 1994 Miller et al., 2005).Olson (1992) explained that for children who were not equipped with enough vocabularies to communicate their emotions, it was likely for them to use their bodies to express themselves. This is much quite undesirable, as for example, if the child was angry at the moment, and because he did not know how to verbalize it, he transformed his anger to physical responses and hit his classmates. seek evidence did show that the lack of emotional vocabulary and emotion understanding were correlated with aggressive behaviors (Bohnert, Crnic Lim, 2003) and ineffective conflict management (Heydenberk Heydenberk, 2005). After building up a list of emotional vocabularies and learning the usage of strategic communications skills like I messages (e.g. I want to, I feel, I hope, etc.), children displays significantly less anti-social behaviors (Heydenberk Heydenberk, 2007). It is easier for them to regulate their emotions (Webster-Stratton Reid, 2009)Methods of DeliveryIn the Incredible Years Programme, most of the sessions involve group discussion and practice, while one-fourth of them are administered through televisiontape modelling (Webster-Stratton and Herbert, 1994).Group DiscussionOne of the goals of the Incredible Years is to provide a cost-effective intervention program. This is achieved through the use of group-based delivery (Webster-Stratton, 2000). There are around 12 to 14 part icipants per group, with one group leader to assist in administrative issues and encourage discussions. Besides the economical value, the group setting allows parents or teachers to share and normalizes their experiences (Webster-Stratton, 1981), to provide support for each other, and to facilitate modeling (Webster-Stratton, 2004). When parents or teachers know that there are so many other people that are encountering the same difficulties as they do, they feel more relieved and confident with their parenting or teaching skills.Video framework and live modelingVideo Modelling is a cost-effective training method that has been extensively used in the programme (Brestan Eyberg, 1998). This method is based on Banduras (1989) theory of observational learning. It was proposed that participants would model the positive behaviors by observing the interactions shown in the videotapes (Webster-Stratton, 2005). The study done by Singer and Singer (1983) showed that children who watched a t elevision programs that promote prosocial behaviors really exhibited significantly greater desirable behaviors upon watching.Parents are mainly shown about parent-child interactions at home during dinner, play, etc. teachers are shown the teacher-child interactions in classroom during circle, work time and play, etc. (Webser-Stratton Reid, 2007). Some of scenes are positive, while some are negative, so the adults understand there is no perfect teaching or parenting (Juffer, Bakermans-Kranenburg van IJzendoorn, 2008a), and this may raise their self-efficacy. Seeing the adult-child relationships give them an idea how to increases childrens prosocial behaviors and reduces aggressive or aversive behaviors (Webster-Stratton, 2004).Previous research, in line with the hypothesis, indicated that children video which showed some positive peer interactions were effective in enhancing childrens politeness and friendliness and in decreasing childrens noncompliant and negative behaviors (Webst er-Stratton, 1982).Unlike, one-to-one interventions, video modeling makes it possible to show different kinds of people interacting in different contexts, which creates greater generalization and participants may find it easier to apply the skills learnt in daily lives (Webster-Stratton, 2000).There are some important points to note when using modeling. First, video-makers have to run across that the participants have affirmative feelings about the model, and they can identify with the model to some extent. One way to achieve this is to explicitly tell the participants that those models are not actors, but real parents like them. Secondly, the video must have scenes showing the model getting reward upon doing some favorable (Webster-Stratton, 1981). For example, the childrens cooperation is a kind of intangible reinforcement for the adults. Thirdly, group leaders should ensure that participants are paying attention, and not being disturbed by some external distracters. Lastly, ther e should be chance for the participants to practice the new skills and gain the reward as shown.In the Children Training Series, the leader and a puppet named Wally act as a live model (Webster-Stratton, 2000). The group leader uses the puppet to role-play and model a positive interpersonal interaction, so that children can learn the appropriate behaviors through vicarious experience (Webster-Stratton Reid, 2009).Behavioral research (Homework and practice)Homework and exercises are minded(p) to participants to try out the newly learnt skills and to apply the knowledge to real life context (Webster-Stratton Reid, 2007 Webster-Stratton Reid, 2009). The role-playing exercises allow participants to understand the concepts and skill more thoroughly and clearly (Webster-Stratton, 2000). And through this, they know how it feels to use appropriate strategies in interactions. Experiences of success is very important for participants to be motivated in using such skills and real achieveme nts can further their self-esteem (Emler, 2001).Child-directed playChild-directed play is a useful tool in enhancing attachment and positive relationship between adults and children (Axline, 1969 Webster-Stratton Reid, 2009). This kind of play can also enhance childrens social competence and self-efficacy (Lee, 1990).There are a number of techniques that aid child-directed play. First, the adults should give minimal comments, not to judge or question during the play. Adults reinforce and encourage the childrens effort, concentration, creativity and all the other positive behaviors. This can help promoting the childrens perceived competence and self-worth (Webster-Stratton Reid, 2009). Second, adults try to follow the childrens thoughts and allow children to have independent persuasion (Webster-Stratton, 2006).There are six different child-directed play skills that can help teaching children academic and social skills, and building a positive adult-child relationship (Webster-Stra tton Reid, 2009). First, the adults use descriptive commenting to show that they are paying attention to the children, and at the same time, to teach children important vocabularies. The joint attention reinforces children to continue playing. Second, adults can use academic coaching to teach children academic skills like counting and names of objects. Third, when children are encountered with challenges in the play, adults try to promote persistence in playing (Schunk, 1981). As suggested by Bandura (1989), the longer one stays in the difficult problems, the stronger confidence one has about his abilities. Adults use persistence coaching to encourage children by commenting on their cognitive condition. Being praised and knowing oneself as persisting, children feel reinforced and contented. Fourth, emotion coaching can be used to teach children feeling words. The last two are one-on-one and peer social coaching that allow children to practice playing with children, so that they can model the interaction techniques and experience real success (Webster-Stratton Reid, 2009). certaintyThe Incredible Years Series is a theoretical-based intervention programme that is found to be effective in treating or preventing childrens conduct problems in many introductory research studies (e.g. Webster-Stratton, 1994 Webster-Stratton et al., 2001 Webster-Stratton Reid, 2009 Webster-Stratton, Reid Stoolmiller, 2008). A lot of developmental or educational psychologists from different countries have been trying to revise and adopt the programme to their culture, reflecting the effectiveness and popularity of the programme. All the three training modules (parents, teachers and children) place great emphasis in promoting childrens positive behaviors by reinforcement, reducing misbehaviors using sensible skills and learning effective social skills through observational learning. Overall, this is a well-planned intervention programme and it is hopeful that Incredible Years can r eally helping creating incredible lives for the next generation.

Womens Health Education On Anemia And Its Dangers

Womens Health Education On Anemia And Its DangersAnemia is a common global public wellness problem (GPHP) affecting both exploitation and unwraped countries with major consequences for human health as well as social and economic development. It occurs at wholly stages of the life cycle, but is more ordinary in big(p ruby- reddenedicate) women and young children in both rich and unforesightful countries. In 2002, branding weight-lift privation genus Anemia (IDA) was considered to be among the most important lend factors to the global burden of disease (1).Anemia is one of the most common factors complicating maternity world full oddly in the development countries, and Palestine is one among of those countries .In Gaza impoverish ,an overall preponderance of genus Anemia is more than 35% among big(predicate) women .most studies have demonstrated adverse effects of anaemia to both fraught(p) women and their offsprings mainly in developing countries due to several factor s. The more etiologic factor for anaemia among maternalism being iron and folic harsh deficiency(2-4)Anemia is the result of a wide variety of causes that enkindle be isolated, but more often coexist. Globally, the most significant contributor to the onset of anemia is iron deficiency so that IDA and anemia argon often used synonymously, and the preponderance of anemia has often been used as a proxy for IDA. It is generally assumed that 50% of the cases of anemia atomic publication 18 due to iron deficiency (5), but the proportion whitethorn vary among population groups and in different areas according to the local conditions. The main peril factors for IDA admit a low ingestion of iron, poor absorption of iron from feeds towering in phytate or phenolic compounds, and period of life when iron requirements are peculiarly high (i.e. growth and gestation).Among the other causes of anemia, heavy note loss as a result of menstruation, or parasite infections much(prenomina l) as hookworms and ascaris can decrease note haemoglobin (Hb) con centimerations take aim. Acute and chronic infections, including malaria, HIV, tuberculosis, and cancer can also lower blood Hb concentrations level. The existence of other micronutrient deficiencies, including vitamins A and B12, folate,riboflavin, and hog can increase the risk of anemia. Furthermore,the impact of haemoglobinopathies on anemia prevalence needs to bewithin some population.Anemia is an indicator of both poor viands and poor health. The most dramatic health effects of anemia, i.e., increased risk of maternal and child death rate due to severe anemia (6-8).To trailer truck the problem of iron deficiency and anemia, WHO recommended the adoption of a multidisciplinary approach tailored to item circumstances including increased iron intake, public health measures and food versification. logical with this strategy, UNRWA implemented a programme for prevention and treatment of iron deficiency anemia. comprising medicinal iron supplementation, fortification of wheat flour distributed to the target groups benefiting from the Agencys regular and hint food aid programmes, and expanding the use of modern contraceptive methods (3,4).In addition, the negative consequences of IDA on cognitive and physicaldevelopment of children, and on physical performance particularly establish productivity in adults are of major concern (5).Previous studies have tapern a rattling high prevalence of anemia among Palestinian refugees specially among antenatal mothers(3).Hence , it is essential that in Palestine, especially in Gaza skid the women should be aware of anemia to reduce the complication during pregnancy.Objectives of the train1-To assess the level of cognizance and public knowledge of anemia among the Palestinian refugee gravid women in Gaza strip.2-To assess if there is a difference between women with and without health education posing.3-To develop a baseline data regarding a wareness of anemia among with child(predicate) women for further studies.Scope of the vignetteThe study aims to assess the level of public knowledge and awareness of anemia among pregnant women who tended to(p) UNRWA health care centers(HCCs) for antenatal care in the middle district of Gaza strip by collecting the information from 164 women from cardinal UNRWA health care centers in Gaza.Hypothesis1-The Palestinian refugee pregnant women were awareness and hada knowledge of anemia at a medium level .2- in that respect is a difference between women with and without health education session regarding anemia .Benefits of the study1-To know the knowledge and awareness regarding anemia among pregnant women living in Gaza strip and who are tending UNRWA health care centers (HCCs) for antenatal care and follow-up.2-To know if tending health education sessions about anemia affects the knowledge and awareness of women by assessing the women with and without health education sessions about anemia in Gaza strip.Literature review studiesTo conduct the study, the researcher has reviewed related studies and reports about anemia status among pregnant women attending UNRWA health care centers for antenatal care in Gaza strip.Nutritional survey conducted by UNRWA in (1961,1978 and 1984)Nutrition surveys conducted among the Palestine refugees in 1961, 1978 and 1984 revealed that more than 50 per cent of preschool children 0-3 years of age and women in reproductive age suffer from iron deficiency anemia.Nutritional survey conducted among pregnant women by WHO in (1990)In 1990, a nutrition survey was conducted by the WHO Collaborating Center at Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta in four Fields of UNRWAs area of operations, namely Jordan, the Syrian Arab Republic (SAR), Gaza sideslip and the West Bank. The survey revealed that the prevalence of iron deficiency anemia among pregnant women ranged between 31.3% in the first trimester to 58.9% in the th ird trimester Agency-wide, go the prevalence among children 6-36 months of age ranged between 57.8% in the West Bank and 75.3% in SAR. A vernal intervention strategy for iron supplementation was then introduced in 1991, which was amended in 1995 placing special emphasis on treatment.Nutritional survey conducted among infants ,preschool children and pregnant women by WHO in (1998)In October 1998, the WHO Collaborating Centre at CDC conducted a nutritionary survey in Gaza Strip, the results of which revealed that iron-deficiency anemia was still high among high-risk groups, namely infants, preschool children and pregnant women.A study conducted among pregnant women by UNRWA in (1999)In 1999, UNRWA conducted a study to assess the maternal health programme which revealed inter-alia that the prevalence of anemia among pregnant women was 44.7% in Gaza, 35.5% in the West Bank, 32.1% in Jordan, 28.6% in Lebanon and 27% in Syria. In addition, the study showed that the prevalence of anemia continuous tensely increases during the course of pregnancy as well as with parity. Anemia below 9g/dl constituted 1.4% of pregnant women. This suggests that in spite of the interventions that the Agency had, so far, to a lower placetaken, iron-deficiency anemia, still represents a major public health problem.A study conducted among pregnant women, nurse mothers and children 6-36 months by UNRWA during (2004)During 2004, UNRWA conducted a follow-up study to assess the prevalence of anemia among pregnant women, nursing mothers and children 6-36 months of age in order to assess the impact of these strategies on the prevalence among pregnant women, nursing mothers and children.The study revealed that the overall prevalence of anemia among pregnant women varied from 35.7% in Gaza, to 29.5% in the West Bank, to 25.5% in Lebanon, to 22.4% in Jordan and 16.2% in Syria. Although, the overall prevalence of anemia among pregnant women in all Fields dropped since the last assessment in 199 9, these rates are still considered to be high. The reason for this drop could be attributed to the prophylactic iron supplementation which is provided for all pregnant women upon registration. on that point is a progressive rise in the prevalence of anemia during the course of pregnancy, which confirms that iron intake during pregnancy, does not meet the increased physiological requirements.Another study conducted among children 6-36 months, pregnant women and nursing mothers by UNRWA in (2004)Another study by UNRWA in 2004 on the prevalence of irondeficiency anemia among children 6 to 36 months of age, pregnant women and nursing mothers, revealed that anemia in Gaza Strip was fairly high (54.7% among children, 35.7% among pregnant women and 45.7% among nursing mothers. The corresponding rates in the West Bank were 34.3% among children, 29.5% among pregnant women and 23.1% among nursing mothers). The high prevalence of anemia for m each children whitethorn cause permanent negative effects on their physical and mental development. It is worth mentioning that the prevalence of anemia among infants 6 to 12 months of age reached 75% in Gaza(9).CHAPTER 2BACKGROUND rendering of anemiaAnemia is defined as a decrease in the anatomy of red blood cells (RBCs) or in the fundamental hemoglobin levels in the blood due to lack of sufficient iron (10,11).more specifically , it means lack in the concentration of hemoglobin, red blood cell volume, or red blood cell (RBCs) number(12).Normally hemoglobin carries oxygen from the lungs to the dead body tissues, anemia leads to hypoxia which means lack of oxygen in the blood .There are three main types of anemia which include 1- Excessive blood loss such as bleeding2-Excessive blood cell destruction3-Insufficient red blood cell work within the human body (13).Signs and symptoms of anemiaThe signs and symptoms of anemia can be related to the anemia itself, or other causes and the women whitethorn experience these symptoms diff erently In common cases, most women with anemia has a non-specific symptoms such as weakness, or fatigue, general malaise and sometimes poor concentration.In addition, the signs may include supernormal pallor or lack color of the skin, and nail beds upon clinical examination is performed .In severe cases of anemia, there may be signs of circulation disturbances such as tachycardia, and cardiac enlargement.There may be signs of heart failure. and restless(prenominal) legs syndrome is more common in those with iron deficiency anemia (IDA) patients .Swelling of both legs, arms, vomiting, chronic heartburn, and blinking(a) stool may appear in rare cases(14).mhtmlfile//CDocuments%20and%20SettingsMARWANMy%20DocumentsAnemia%20-%20Wikipedia,%20the%20free%20encyclopedia.mhthttp//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Symptoms_of_anemia.png/260px-Symptoms_of_anemia.pngMain symptoms that may appear in anemia (14)Diagnosis of anemiaIn general, In the first time of diagnosis of ane mia a simple blood test is ordered by the physician called complete blood counts (CBC ) .Another blood tests can be ordered is examination of a stained blood smear (SBS) by a microscope which could be helpful in the diagnosis of anemia, and sometimes it will be necessary in some countries internationally where automated analysis is not easily accessible. unremarkably and commonly four blood elements are ordered and measured consists of hemoglobin concentration , RBC count, RDW and MCV, allowing others (hematocrit, MCH and MCHC) to be reckon, and to be compared to values according to age and sex. many counters measurement estimate hematocrit level (Hct) from direct measurements in the same time (15).Table 2.1 WHOs Hemoglobin thresholds used to define anemia (1 g/Dl = 0.6206mmol/L)(15)Age or gender groupHb threshold (g/dl)Hb threshold (mmol/l)Children (0.5-5.0 yrs)11,06,8Children (5-12 yrs)11,57,1Children (12-15 yrs)12,07,4Women, non-pregnant (15yrs)12,07,4Women, pregnant11,06,8Men (15yrs)13,08,1Anemia during pregnancyAnemia in pregnancy is defined as hemoglobin level less than (11g/dl ) or hematocrit level less than (33%) (16). It aggravates the effects of maternal blood loss and infections at childbirth, and is associated with increased maternal mortality and morbidity(17,18). iron deficiency is usually considered as the most common cause of anemia in pregnancy (16).Anemia occurs when the number of red blood cells are very low under the normal level . Red blood cells are very important blood component because they carry oxygen from lungs to all body organs. Without sufficient amount of oxygen, the body cannot work as well as it should.Anemia can affect any individual, but women are at greater risk for this condition. In women, iron and red blood cells are lost when bleeding or hemorrhage occurs from very heavy or long periods (menstruation).Anemia is common among pregnant women because a woman needs to have adequate red blood cells to carry oxygen to women body and to her baby. So its important for women to prevent anemia before, during and after pregnancy. Women will probably be tested for anemia regularly at least double during pregnancy during the first prenatal visit and then again between 24 and 28 weeks(19).Anemia is a condition of less red blood cells, or a lack ability of the red blood cells to carry oxygen or iron in the blood. Tissue enzymes dependent on iron in the blood can affect cell function in the body mainly in muscles and nerves .then the fetus is dependent on the mothers blood and anemia can cause problems before and after pregnancy such as preterm birth, poor fetal growth , and low birth weight(20).Main causes of anemia during pregnancyIron deficiency anemiaWomen often become anemic during pregnancy because the demand for iron and other vitamins is increased. The mother must increase her product of red blood cells and, in addition, the foetus and placenta need their own supply of iron, which can only be obtained from the mother. In order to have enough red blood cells for the foetus, the body starts to produce more red blood cells and plasma. It has been calculated that the blood volume increases approximately 50 per cent during the pregnancy, although the plasma amount is disproportionately greater. This causes a dilution of the blood, making the hemoglobin concentration fall. This is a normal process, with the hemoglobin concentration at its lowest between weeks 25 and 30. The pregnant woman may need additional iron supplementation, and a blood test called serum ferritin is the best way of monitoring this(21).Illness or DiseaseSome women may have an illness that causes anemia. Diseases such as sickle cell anemia or thalassemia affect the quality and number of red blood cells the body produces. If you have a disease that causes anemia, talk with your health provider about how to treat anemia(22).Types of anemia in pregnancyThere are several types of anemia that may occur during pregnancyIr on deficiency anemiaThis is the most common type of anemia during pregnancy. It is known as the lack of iron in the blood, which is essential to produce hemoglobin the part of blood that carries oxygen from the lungs to tissues and many organs in the body. Good nutrition system to the women before becoming pregnant is very important to help build up these stores and prevent iron deficiency anemia during pregnancy period.Blood lossBlood loss at delivery and after delivery (postpartum) can also cause anemia. The average blood loss with a vaginal birth is about 500 milliliters, and about 1,000 milliliters with a cesarean delivery. Sufficient iron stores can help a woman replace lost red blood cells during delivery.Vitamin B12 deficiencyVitamin B12 is essential in forming red blood cells (RBCs) and in protein synthesis. Women who eat no animal products (vegans) are commonly most likely to develop vitamin B12 deficiency. Including animal foods in the diet such as meats, milk, eggs, and poultry can prevent vitamin B12 deficiency. Very severe vegans usually need supplemental vitamin B12 which usually administered by injection during pregnancy.Folic acid deficiencyFolic acid, is a B-vitamin that works with iron to help with cell development and growth. Folic acid deficiency in pregnancy is most commonly associated with iron deficiency since both folic acid and iron are found in the same types of nutrition. Several Studies revealed that folic acid is necessary for women during pregnancy ,this maybe because folic acid help reduce the risk of having inseparable baby with certain birth defects of the brain and spinal cord if taken by the women before conception and in early pregnancy (20).Symptoms of anemia during pregnancyWomen with anemia during pregnancy may not have obvious symptoms unless the cell counts are very low. The following are the most common symptoms of anemia that may occur in pregnancy. However, each woman may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms m ay includepale skin, ,nails, lips, palms of handslabored breathingunderside of the eyelidsvertigo or dizzinessfatiguerapid heartbeat (tachycardia)The symptoms of anemia may similar other conditions or medical problems .So you should always consult your physician for a diagnosis and treatment(20).Diagnosing of anemia during pregnancyDepending on clinical symptoms, anemia is usually discovered during antenatal screening specially in the first visit of pregnant women to the antenatal care clinics for antenatal care and follow up. Normally ,Blood tests are usually measured on the first visit to antenatal health center, and again during pregnancy .A description of Hemoglobin(Hbs) ,red blood cells (RBCs) and their different components will be included in the blood test result.Possible complications of anemia and iron deficiency anemia during pregnancyThere are several possible complications may occur during pregnancy which threats women health such asBreathing difficulty, palpitations and angina. Severe anemia due to hemorrhage or loss of blood after the delivery. In this condition, the woman may be advised to have a blood blood transfusion as soon as possible (21). Severe anemia related to any reason may lead to hypoxemia and enhances the occurrence of coronary insufficiency and myocardial ischemia. (23).In women with severe iron deficiency, disturbances in function of epithelial tissue is usually occurred . Atrophy of the lingual papillae in the tongue may occur and show a glossy appearance. Also , angular stomatitis may develop associated with fissures at the corners of the mouth. The occurrance of dysphagia may appear with hard diets. Atrophic gastritis occurs in cases of iron deficiency with progressive lack of stomach enzymes production such as loss of acid secretion, pepsin, and intrinsic factor and development of an antibody to gastric parietal cells.Cold intolerance occurs in some cases with chronic irondeficiency anemia and is characterized by neurologic p ain , vasomotor disturbances, or tingling and numbness. In rare conditions, severe iron deficiency anemia is associated with increased intracranial pressure. These symptoms can be treated with iron therapy. Impaired immune function is shown in cases with iron deficiency. Moreover, there are reports revealed that those patients are at high risk to develop infection (23).Treatment for anemia in pregnancySpecific treatment for anemia will be identified prescribed by physician found onYour pregnancy statusOverall health, and medical historyExtent of the diseaseYour tolerance for specific medications, or proceduresExpectations for the course of the diseaseYour opinion or preferenceTreatment of anemia depends on the type and severity of anemia. In cases of iron deficiency anemia treatment includes iron supplements therapy. Some forms are time-released, while others must be taken several times every day. Having iron supplements with a citrus succus can be help with the absorption into the body. Taking antacids may decrease absorption of iron in the blood. There are side effects may occurs when taking Iron supplements such as nausea and stools become dark greenish or black in color. In addition , Constipation may also occur with iron supplements.Prevention of anemia in pregnancyAnemia can be prevented during pregnancy with following a good pre-pregnancy nutrition system not only helps in preventing anemia, but also helps in building other nutritional stores in the mothers body. Having a healthy and balanced diet with essential products of food during pregnancy helps maintain the iron levels and other necessary nutrients needed for the mother health and growing her baby(20).Women educationIt is important for the public health officials in the geographical regions in which the iron deficiency is prevalent need to be more aware of the significance of iron deficiency, its effect on work performance and activities, and the importance of giving iron supplements during preg nancy and childhood. Moreover, Addition of iron to basic foodstuffs usually employed to solve this problem (24).CHAPTER 3Women health in PalestineWomens HealthPalestinian women have a fundamental right to enjoy the highest possible levels of health and quality of life. MOH works towards the improvement of their health during all phases of lives with wide participation with other key health providers as UNRWA and NGOs.IndicatorsvalueIndicatorsvalue% of women of child bearing age of impart pop22.3Prevalence of anemia among pregnant women in MOH35.7Total fertility rate (5.8 in GS and 4.1 in WB)4.6T.T. immunization coverage among newly pregnant women in MOH (99.1 in UNRWA) (%)42.4Maternal mortality ratio per 100,000 live birth15.4% of children received breastfeeding95.6% of pregnant women attended antenatal care out of sum of money live births96.5Mean duration of breastfeeding (months)10.9The number of visits give per pregnant woman in MOH (7.6 in UNRWA)5.5Contraceptive prevalence ra te (43 in GS, 55.1 in WB)50.6% of deliveries in health institution97% of IUDs used of total contraceptive methods32% of deliveries in home (0.4 in GS, 5.5 in WB)3.2% of pills used of total contraceptive methods38.7Prevalence of anemia among nursing mother in UNRWA45.7antepartum care servicesAntenatal care is an essential part of modern health care such care is every womans right. Health providers must turn out serious attention to the health of the pregnant woman and her fetus.In Palestine there are four health sectors providing maternal care the MOH, UNRWA, the NGOs and the private doctors. There are 353 MCH clinics in MOH and 53 clinics in UNRWA providing antenatal care.The number of visits paid per pregnant woman was 5.5 in Palestine (6.5 in GS and 4.8 in WB). In UNRWA, it was account at 7.6 visits per pregnant women in Gaza Strip, the percent of women who paid 7-9 visits was 47.5%.According to DHS in 2005, Data showed that 96.5% of women aged 15-49 years received antenatal car e in Palestine. There is direct relationship between education level and receipt of antenatal care women who did not receive antenatal care were more likely to be less educated more than women who received antenatal care.In addition, access to antenatal care decreased with parity, with fewer women accessing antenatal care for their 4th pregnancy or more.High risk pregnancy servicesCertain conditions or characteristics, called risk factors, make a pregnancy high risk and woman or baby is more likely to become ill or die than usual. Doctors identify these factors and use a scoring system to determine the degree of risk for a particular woman. Identifying high-risk pregnancies ensures that women who most need special medical care.The high-risk program has been implemented in 26 referral governmental clinics in the Gaza Strip and 18 MCH clinics in UNRWA.The percentage of newly pregnant women visits with high-risk pregnancy was 14% of total newly pregnant women in MOH (17.8% in the GS an d 11.6% in the WB). The number of visits paid per high-risk pregnant women was 5.2 visits.In UNRWA, the percentage of newly pregnant women visit at high risk and alert pregnancy was 44% from total antenatal visits of newly pregnant women. Out of the total, 40% paid 3-4 visits and 47.7% paid 7-9 visits.During home visit program in Gaza Strip, the factors associated with high risk pregnancy were as shown in the following table taking in consideration that one woman may have more than one complicationTable 3.1 factors associated with high risk pregnancyFactorsPercent %Anemia48.8Multipara27.5Primapara25.4Previous CS21.6Hypertention16Diabetes5.5Pre-eclamptic2.1Others6Tetanus toxoid immunizationThe vaccination for pregnant women is taken based on MOH protocol during the first antenatal visit. Immunization coverage among newly pregnant women was 42.4% (25.2% in WB and 64.1% in Gs). In UNRWA, out of total (11,100) pregnant women of 20 weeks and over of gestation, the vaccinated pregnant wom en were 11,005 with a coverage rate of 99.1% (25) .Anemia among women in PalestineWHO define anemia as Hb is less than 11 gm/dl. The percentage of anemic mothers whom visited the governmental MCH for antenatal care was 38.5% (27.2%in the GS and 50% in the WB) .During study conducted in UNRWA in the year 2005, the prevalence rate of anemia among pregnant women was 35.7% and 45.7% among nursing mothers visited UNRWA-PHC centers for antenatal services in the Gaza Strip. During home visits program which are conducted by Womens Health and development board of directors in MOH, Hemoglobin (HB) has been examined for 1,950 visited mothers after delivery in Shifa as 38.5% (27.2%in the GS and 50% in the WB). During home visits program which are conducted by Womens Health and development Directorate in MOH, Hemoglobin (HB) has been examined for 1,950 visited mothers after delivery in Shifa hospital especially those at high-risk pregnancy or who has complication/s during delivery. The results i ndicated that 61.6% of women were anemic. Out of the total women, HB was diagnosed 10 gm/dl 11 gm/dl among 38.4% of visited women. Ferrous sulfate and folic acid as a tonic is distributed for pregnant women and children under 3 years in MOH and UNRWA centers free of charge (25) .Table 3.2 Prevalence rate of anemia among women visited UNRWA-PHCcenters in Gaza Strip, 2005Pregnant womenNursing mothersSamplesHB11gm/dl%SamplesHB12gm/dl92032835.7810370CHAPTER 4METHODOLOGYStudy designA cross-sectional study design was conducted during August,2009 in order to assess awareness among pregnant women attending UNRWA health care centers for antenatal care , based on health clinics of UNRWA in Gaza strip.Target populationAll pregnant women who was registered at UNRWA clinics ,both old and new ,who attended for antenatal care during August,2009 in Gaza strip .Sample sizeA total of 164 women from UNRWA clinics in the middle region of Gaza strip were selected randomly to act in the survey taking i nto account the distribution of population in each area to represent the study population fairly. The attempt size was calculated by assuming a 95% confidence interval and sampling error no more than (5%) using Yamane formula (1967886) as followsWhere n is the sample sizeN is the populatione is the sampling error rate (5%)Instrument of the studyThe instrument used in this study was questionnaire which created to cover the objectives of the study .the questionnaire included four divisions .1st division The question is about socio-demographical data of the women including age, educational level, occupation, number of children, economical status and attending health education session .the questions in this division were closed-ended and open-ended.2nd division The questions is about knowledge and awareness of women regarding anemia concept ,nutrition ,iron supplements ,and the tea with meals. The questions included 3 choices (completely agree, partially agree and disagree).third divis ion The questions about opinions and attitudes of women regarding anemia .It included 3 choices (completely agree, partially agree and disagree).4th division The questions about health education session regarding anemia. It included 3 choices (completely agree, partially agree and disagree).Data collectionData was collected using the structured questionnaire as a tool to collect data from the samples of study by individual interview performed by the researcher and with assistant of staff in UNRWA clinics who has the experience in data collection and methodology.data analysisAfter data collection ,the questionnaires were collected and the data was entered to computer software for processing and analysis. the programme used for analysis is (SPSS) statistical package for social sciences software version 15. ethical considerationClearance and permission was obtained from Chief Field Health Section of UNRWA in Gaza strip in order to conduct questionnaires survey among refugees pregnant w omen who attended UNRWA clinics for antenatal care and follow-up in Gaza strip.In addition, the permission was taken from the head of UNRWA clinics and also oral permission was obtained from the women who participated in the survey.CHAPTER 5RESULTSThe current study aimed to assess the awareness of anemia among pregnant women who attended UNRWA clinics for antenatal care.Table 6.1 Age distribution of pregnant womenPercentFrequencyAge groups (years)8.5 %14 slight than 2034.8 %5720 -2525 %4126-3031.7 %52More than 30100 %164TotalTable 1.6 shows that most (34.8%) of parti

Substation And Equipment Surge Protection Engineering Essay

Substation And Equipment Surge shelter Engineering EssaySubstation and Equipment Surge defense shells, characteristics, related calculations, examples with applications for industrial systemsGautami BhattAbstract-This story describes the various types of scend protectors, their types and characteristics. This paper testament also describes lightning rushing arrestors, about them and how the power system is protected against them.Index Terms- heft, lightening, switching, BIL, insularism, protective c over, substation asylumEach electrical equipment should have a long service life of more than 25 years. The managers be supported on insulators/embedded in insularism system. The internal and external insulation is continually exposed to normal potential differences and occasional abnormal potentialitys. These abnormal potentialitys include temporary over potentials at power frequence, lightening surges and switching surges.Over potentialitys at power frequency have a l ow over voltage factor but a longer continuation while the latter have high schooler voltage duration and lesser duration. Protection against power frequency over voltages is achieved by employing an over voltage pass along at the secondary of a transformer or by using an Inverse definite-Minimum Time Overvoltage Relay.Protection against transient voltage surges is achieved by the help of Surge arrtestors. The surge arrestors, coordinated form bubbles chess commitings, surge suppressors, over heard ground telegraphs, neutral humanitying, shunt capacitors etc. atomic number 18 located strategically to intercept the lightening surges or to reduce the peak and rate of rise of surges.Protective systems for the different abnormal voltages act at different speeds depending on the over voltage. Temporary power frequency over voltage occurs for anything between ms to s and hence the over voltage relay acts within 70ms. Lightening surges last for micro seconds and thus typically the surge arrestor acts within 1.2micro seconds. Switching surges argon in the range of a couple of hundred micro seconds and surge arrestors for them are typically designed for 100micro seconds.This paper focuses on lightening surges, their types, protection against them, and the different types of lightning surge arrestors.LIGHTENING OVER-VOLTAGESLighteningBenjamin Franklin (1706-90) performed his famous experiment (1745) of kite flying in thunder cloud. earlier his discovery lightening was con fontred to be Act of God. Franklin proved that the lightening stroke was due to justify of electricity. Franklin also invented lightening rods to be fixed on queen-size buildings and hide outed to protect them from lightening strokes.The large igniter accompanied by light produced by an abrupt, discontinuous carry of electricity through the air, from the clouds generally under irritated conditions of atmosphither is called lightening.Representative determines of a lightening strokeVol tage 200MVCurrent 40MADuration 10-5 secKW8109KWh22 sinewAn operating cost conductor accumulates statically induced charge when charged clouds come preceding(prenominal) the conductor. If the cloud is swept away from its place, the charges on the conductor are released. The charge travels on either sides giving rise to two locomotion fluctuates. The earth wire does not prevent such surges.Another curious phenomenon is the unpredictable paths of lightening strokes. unremarkably they try to reach the earth and are therefore intercepted by lightning rods, trees, tall structures, etc. Empire state building has been struck by lightning several times. barely some lightning strokes do not observe any rules and travel in all sorts of Haphazard fashion.A B type stroke occurs due to choppy change in the charges of the cloud. If cloud 1 suddenly discharges to cloud 2, there is a sudden change in the charge on cloud 3. A discharge that occurs between cloud 3 and earth is called B stroke. S uch stroke does not hit lightening rod, or earth wire. No protection can be come throughd to the over head margin against such strokes.Attractive effect of Over laissez passer ground wire and earth rods (MASTS)Earth rods (also called lightning rod) are placed on tall buildings. These are connected to the earth. The positive charges accumulate on the sharp points of the lightning rods this is why lightning strokes are attracted to them. The earth wires are placed above the over head transmission origins. At every tower this wire is grounded. The positive charges accumulate on this wire. The negatively charged strokes are attracted by the earth wire. In absence of the earth wire the lightening stroke would strike the fund conductors causing flashovers in transmission line.Earth wires do not provide 100% protection. Weak strokes are not attracted by earth wires. B type strokes are not attracted by earth wires. None the less earth wire has proved to be a good solution to very dange rous direct strokes.Earth wires have a protect angle. The conductors coming in the screen zone are protected against direct strokes. The shielding angle is between 30 to 40 degrees. An angle is 35 degrees is said to be efficient and satisfactory for Overhead lines.Overhead Shielding Screen (earthed)The equipments in a substation are protected from direct lightning strikes by one of the following ways.Overhead shielding scree(Earthed). Covering the overhead lines approaching the substationLightning Masts installed at strategic locations in the switchyard. The tower-top is earthed. Mast is an independent structure.According to IEC masts are preferred for outdoor switchyards upto 33KV. For 66KV and above, the lightning masts become too tall and uneconomical. The overhead shielding wires are preferred because they give adequate protection and the height of structures in the substation provided with overhead shielding wires is comparatively less than that for the lightning mastsThe en tire switchyard is provided with earthed overhead shielding screen. The size of conductor is usually 7/9SWG, galvanized steel round stranded conductor.Transmission line conductors are protected by overhead shielding conductor (earthed). The shielding angle (alpha) is defined as follows. A vertical line is drawn from the earth wire. Angle alpha is plotted on each side of this vertical line. The envelope within angle 2alpha is called the zone of protection.The shielding angle according to ANSI is defined as 30 degrees while in the IEC world it is 45 degrees.The clearance between descriptor conductor and overhead shielding wire should be more than minimum phase to earth clearance.Lightning Strikes on Over Head LinesThese can be the following Direct strikes on line conductor, direct stroke on tower top, direct stroke on ground wire and indirect stroke or B stroke on overhead line conductor.Direct strikes on overhead lines are the most harmful. The voltage cosmos of the order several m illion volts, the insulators flashover, puncture, and get shattered. The wave travels to both sides shattering line insulators, until the surge is dissipated sufficiently. The wave travels to both sides shattering line insulators, until the surge is dissipated sufficiently. The wave reaches the substation and produces stress on equipment insulators. At times these strikes are prevented from striking the line conductor. All high voltage overhead lines are protected by earth conductors. This mesh covers the complete switchyard.Direct Strokes on tower-topConsider,L = inductance,I = Current in tower,R =Effective resistance of tower.e = voltage surge between tower-top and earth.So if the change in actual with respect to time is 10KA/ and the resistance is 5 ohms and inductance being 10micro Henry. Then e will be 200KV. This surge voltage appears between the tower top and earth. The line conditions are virtually at earth potential because of neutral grounding. Hence voltage appears betwe en the tower top and earth. The line conductors are virtually at earth potential because of neutral grounding. Hence its voltage appears between line conductors and tower-top. If this surge voltage exceeds proneness flash-over level, a flash-over occurs between the tower and the line conductor. accordingly the resistance is kept low for each tower.A direct stroke on earth wire in the mid-span can cause a flashover between line conductor and earth wire or line conductor and tower. indirect strikes on line conductor can have the same effect as direct stroke on conductor. They are more harmful for distribution lines but are not significant for EHV lines. Other factors are low tower footing resistance insulation level of lines. For lines rated above 110KV voltage level, the line insulation is high and back flashovers are rare. For line between 11KV and 33KV, the insulation of lines is relatively low and back flashovers are likely to occur.Protective devices against lightning surgesSe veral devices are used in order to protect the power system against lightning surges. An overview of them is given(p) here while some are discussed in detail.A. Overview of protective devices against lightening surges twistWhere AppliedRemarksRod gaps across insulator string,bushing insulator,support insulatorDifficult to coordinateFlashover voltage varies byCreate dead short setCheapOver heat ground wires (earthed)Above overhead linesAbove substation areaProvides effective protection against direct strokes on line conductors, towers, substation equipmentVertical MastsIn substationsUsed instead of providing overhead shielding wiresLightning spikes/rods (earthed)Above tall buildingsProtects buildings against direct strokes. Angle of protection between 30 to 40Lightning arrestorsOn incoming lines in each substationNear terminals of transformers and generatorsPole mounted on distribution linesDiverts overvoltage to earth without causing spreadUsed at every voltage level in every sub station and for each linePhase to groundSurge absorbersNear rotating machines or switchgearAcross series reactor valvesResistance capacitance combination absorbs the over voltage surge and reduces steepness of waveB. Rod gapsThe simplest protection of line insulators, equipment insulators and bushings is given by Rod gaps or coordinating gaps. The conducting rods are provided between line terminal and earthed terminal of the insulator with an adjustable gap. The medium in the gap is air. The rods are approximately 12mm in dia. or square. The gap is adjusted to breakdown at about 20% below flash-over voltage of insulator. The distance between wind path and insulator should be more than 1/3 of the gap length. tiny protection is not possible by rod gaps. The break-down voltage varies with polarity, steepness and wave-shape, weather. The power frequency currents continue to flow even after the high voltage surge has vanished. This creates an earth fault only to be interrupted by a circ uit breaker. Operation of rod gap therefore leads to discontinuity of supply. The advantage of gap is low cost and easy adjustment on site. For more precise operation, surge arrestors are used.Horngaps, the gap between the horns is less at the bottom and large at the top. An arc is produced at the bottom during high voltage surge. This arc commutes along the horn due to electromagnetic field action and length increases. The arc may blow out.Impulse ratio of protective devices is the ratio of breakdown voltage on specified impulse wave to breakdown voltage at power frequency.Typical impulse ratio values areSphere gap 1Rod gap 1.6 to 3Horn gap 2 to 3LIGHTNING ARRESTORSSurge arrestors are usually connected between phase and ground in the distribution system around the terminals of large medium voltage rotating machines and in HV, EHV, HVDC sub-stations to protect the apparatus insulation from lightning surges and switching surges.The resistor blocks in the surge arrestor offer low resi stance to high voltage surge and cavort the high voltage surge to ground. Thereby the insulation of the protected installation is not subjected to the full surge voltage. The surge voltage does not create short-circuit like rod gaps and retains the residual voltage across its terminals.Surge arrestor discharges current impulse surge to earth and dissipates energy in the form of heat.After discharging the impulse wave to the earth, the resistor blocks in the surge arrester offers a very high resistance to normal power frequency voltage, acting like an open circuit.Some of the types of surge arresters being used today in the industry areGapped-Silicon-carbide Surge arrestors called the valve-type or conventional Gapped arrestors. These consist of silicon-carbide discs in series with spark gap units.Zinc-Oxide Gapless Arrestors called the ZnO Arrestors or metal oxide arrestors. These are gapless and consist of Zinc oxide discs in series. ZnO arrestors have superior V/I characteristics and higher energy absorption level. They are preferred for EHV and HVDC installations.Fig.1-A ZnO surge arrestor1Gap-type Sic Arrestors are connected between phase and earth. It consists of silicon-carbide resistor elements in series with gap elements. The resistor elements offer non-linear resistance at power frequencies, the resistor elements in series offer high resistance with gap elements. The resistor elements offer non linear resistance, at power frequency frequency over voltages, the resistance offered is large. For discharge currents the resistance is low. The gap unit consists of air gaps of appropriate length. During normal voltages, the surge arrestor does not conduct. When a surge wave travelling along the line reaches the surge arrester, the gap breaks down. Since the resistance being offered to it is low, the wave is diverted to earth. After a few micro seconds the normal frequency wave reappears across the arrester. Therefore arc current in gap unit reduces and the voltage across the gap is not enough to keep up the arc. Therefore the current flowing to the earth s automatically interrupted by and normal condition is restored. Thus, the high voltage surge is discharged to earth and the insulation of the equipments connected to it are protected.Fig.2- Charecteristics of ZnO block1CLASSIFICATION OF SURGE ARRESTORSSurge arresters can be classified based on voltage, current, and energy capability as followsStation TypeLine TypeDistribution TypeStandard normal current peak(A)10,000500025001500Voltage rating(Kv rms)3.3-2453.3-123Upto 3.3ApplicationLarge power stations and large substations ordinary and medium substationsDistribution system rural distributionSURGE ARRESTORS, SPECIFICATION AND TERMSSome of the terms and definitions related to surge arrestors are given here in order to better understand the content given in this paper.Surge Arrestor is a device designed to protect electrical equipment from transient high voltage, to limit the duration and amplitude of the follow current.Non-linear resistor. The part of the arrester which offers a low resistance to the flow of discharge currents thus limiting the voltage across the arrestor terminals and high resistance to power frequency voltage, thus limiting the magnitude of follow current.Rated voltage of the arrester is the maximum permissible RMS voltage between the line terminal of the arrestor as designated by the manufacturer.It should be noted that all equipments are rated by the phase to phase voltage rating but for surge arresters phase to ground rating is the rated voltage.Follow Current is the current that flows from connected power source through lightening arrester following the passage of the passage of the discharge currentNormal discharge current is the surge current that flows through the surge arrester after the spark over, expressed in crest value (peak value) for a specified wave. This term is used in classifying surge arrester as station type, line type dis tribution type.Discharge current is the current flowing through the surge arrester after the spark over.Power frequency spark-over voltage is the rms value of the power frequency voltage applied between the line and earth terminals of arrester and earth which causes spark over of the series gap.Impulse spark over voltages. Highest value of voltage attained during an impulse of given polarity, of specified wave shape applied between the line terminal and the earth of an arrester before the flow of discharge current.Residual Voltage (discharge voltage) is the voltage that appears between the line terminals and earth during the passage of the discharge current.Rated current of a surge arrester is the maximum impulse current at which the peak discharge residual voltage is determined.Coefficient of earthing is the ratio of the highest rms voltage of healthy phase to earhh to the phase to phase nominal voltage time hundred expressed in percentage during an earth fault on one phase.Thus, f or an effectively earthed system the coefficient of earthing Ce Therefore surge arrester voltage isUa 0.8 * Um rmsSurge voltage (Vs) KV instantaneous is taken as 2.5 times Critical Flash Over Voltage (CFOV) of line insulation. Therefore discharge current Ia is given by. TESTS ON SURGE ARRESTERSThe following are the list of standard tests performed on a surge arrester according to the IEC1/50 impulse spark over test.Wave front impulse sparkover test.Peak discharge residual voltage at low current.Peak discharge residual voltage at rated diverter current.Impulse current withstand test.Switching-impulse voltage test.Discharge capability of durability.Transmission line discharge test.Low current long-duration test.Power duty cycle test.Pressure-relief test. denotationThe author would like to sincerely thank and express her gratitude to Prof. Robert Spiewak for his guidance and support and the references he provided.K.C. Agrawal, Industrial Power engineering applications handbook, Newnes Power Engineering SeriesS. Rao, Switchgear Protection and Power systems, Khanna PublicationsIEEE Std. 141, IEEE Recommended Practice for electrical Power distribution for industrial plantsGautami Bhatt (MEE10) is a M.E.E in Power and Control Engineering from the University of Houston.

Asian Crisis Essay -- essays research papers fc

The beginning of the Asian financial crisis can be traced back to 2 July 1997. That was the mean solar day the Thai Government announced a managed float of the tical and called on the International Monetary Fund (IMF) for technical assistance. That day the Baht fell around 20 per cent against the $US. This became the trigger for the Asian currency crisis. Within the calendar week the Philippines and Malaysian Governments were heavily intervening to defend their currencies. While Indonesia intervened and also allowed the currency to move in a widened trading range a sort of a float but with a floor below which the monetary authority acts to defend the currency against further falls. By the end of the month there was a currency meltdown during which the Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir attacked rogue speculators and named the notorious speculator and hedge fund manager, George Soros, as being personally responsible for the fall in value of the ringgit. short other East Asian econo mies became involved, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore and others to varying degrees. Stock and property markets were also feeling the pressure though the declines in stock prices tended to show a less volatile but nevertheless downward trend over most of 1997. By 27 October the crisis had had a world wide impact, on that day provoking a massive response on Wall Street with the Dow Jones industrial average falling by 554.26 or 7.18 per cent, its biggest point fall in history, causing stock exchange officials to suspend trading. Countries such as Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines have embraced an unusual policy combination of liberalisation of controls on flows of financial capital on the one hand, and quasi-fixed/ heavily managed exchange rate systems on the other. These exchange rate systems have been operated largely through linkages with the linked States (US) dollar as their anchor. (1) Such outer policy mixes are only sustainable in the longer term if there is clo se harmonisation of economic/ financial policies and conditions with those of the anchor country (in this case, the United States). Otherwise, establishing capital flows will inevitably undermine the exchange rate.Rather than harmonisation, there seems to have actually been increased economic and financial divergence with the US, especially in terms of current account deficits, inflation and interest rates. The... ..., Crisis into Catastrophe? Financial Times (London), 31 October 1997, p. 15.8.Max Walsh, Aid Parcels to lacquerese Banks, The New Zealand Herald, 18 November 1998, pp. 25-26 Max Walsh, Time for Japan to moreover the World, The New Zealand Herald, 21 November 1998, pp. 29-30.9.John McBeth, Big is Best Indonesias Rescue Package Draws on the Thai Experience, Far Eastern Economic Review, 13 November 1997, pp. 68-69 Greg Sheridan, The Asian Malaise is Curable, 28 November 1997, p. 13. field of study Business Review10.Charles Lee, The Next Domino? Far Eastern Economic Rev iew, 20 November 1997, pp. 14-16.11.Eric Ellis, Kim Inspects Mouth of IMF Gift Horse, Australian Financial Review, 24 November 1997, p. 12.12.Teresa Wyszomierski and Christopher Lingle, "Fortress Japan Under Siege, Australian Financial Review, 19 November 1997, p. 20.13.Ian MacFarlane, Forbes Magazine Business 1998, pp24-27. 14. Forecasts Lowered, The New Zealand Herald, 20 November 1998, pp. 29-30.15.Reserve Bank of New Zealand, semi-annual Statement on Monetary Policy, November 1997, pp. 2-13.16 A New Revolution by Peter Smith As published in NZBUSINESS, August 1998, PP

Image Processing :: OCR Captcha Facial Recognition

AbstractThis paper is about a selected few cooking stove processing applications. Optical Character Recognition is the translation of images of handwritten, typewritten or printed text into machine-editable text. Then I have introduced the captcha that we so frequently encounter in universal websites. An algorithm trying to solve or break a captcha has been explained. Face detection is a growing and an important tool in security these days. It must(prenominal) be applied before face recognition. There are more methods for recognizing faces and a few of them are discussed in the paper.ContentsTopicPg No discover ProcessingOptical character recognitionCaptchaBraking CaptchaFace DetectionAlgorithm for Face DetectionReferences regard processingImage processing is any configuration of signal processing for which the input is an image, such as photographs or frames of video the output of image processing can be either an image or a set of characteristics or parameters related to the image. Most image-processing techniques involve treating the image as a two-dimensional signal and applying standard signal-processing techniques to it.Typical OperationsAmong many other image processing operations areGeometric transformation such as enlargement, reduction, and rotationColor corrections such as last word and contrast adjustments, quantization, or conversion to a different color spaceDigital compositing or optical compositing (combination of two or more images). Interpolation, demosaicing, and recovery of a full image from a raw image format.Image editing (e.g., to increase the quality of a digital image)Image differencing (to determine changes between images)Image registration (alignment of two or more images)Image stabilizationImage segmentation(partitioning a digital image into multiple regions)Extending dynamic range by unite differently exposed images2-D object recognition with affine invarianceOptical character recognitionOptical character recognition, u sually abbreviated to OCR, is the mechanical or electronic translation of images of handwritten, typewritten or printed text (usually captured by a scanner) into machine-editable text.OCR is a field of research in pattern recognition, artificial intelligence and machine vision. though academic research in the field continues, the focus on OCR has shifted to implementation of proven techniques. Optical character recognition (using optical techniques such as mirrors and lenses) and digital character recognition (using scanners and computer algorithms) were originally considered separate fields. Because very few applications survive that use true optical techniques, the OCR term has now been broadened to include digital image processing as well.Early systems required training (the provision of known samples of each character) to read a specific font. Intelligent systems with a last degree of recognition accuracy for most fonts are now common.

Sir John A. Macdonald Essay -- Canadian History

Sir lavatory A. Macdonald Sir John A. Macdonald was born in Glasgow, Scotland, on January 10, 1815. His fathers depict was Hugh Macdonald and his mothers name was Helen Shaw. His father had migrated to Glasgow from the town of Dornach. His father was a very pleasant and easy going guy and he alwasys wanted to make everyhting better further he usually made things worst. He was a man that had lots of friends, he would talk a lot and drink too. His mother came from Spey Vally. His mother was a very smart girl, she was like the opposite of his father. His mother and father got married on 1811, and afterward 8 years they had 5 children, the eldest child died and after John was the eldest. In Glasgow his fathers business wansnt doing that good and he thought that if they would move to upper Canada they would have a better life there. So finally in 1820 they sailed to upper Canada. They arrived at Kingston in mid July, and John was only five years old. When he arrived his though t about Scotland just disapeard. The Macdonald family decided to wait in Kingston. Sir John A. only went to school untill 1829, when he was only 15. His parents couldnt afford to send him to University. He says that if had went to University he wouldnt have went into politics. When he turned 15 Sir John A. articled to a Kingston lawyer, George Mackenzie, so he was learining Law. In 1832 Mackenzie opened a branch office where he put Macdonald in charge of it. subsequently on he had taken over another law practice i...

History of Slavery in the Caribbean Essay -- Caribbean Historical Essa

History of thrall in the CaribbeanThe institution of slavery has contend a major role in the history, and the shaping of the Caribbean. Therefore, in order to truly understand the Caribbean one must completely understand slavery itself.Slavery can be defined as belonging to a person, or being treated like a piece of property, and not having any individual(a) freedom This was essentially the life many Africans lived for many centuries in the Caribbean . The masters had total freedom and control over his or her slaves. As a result of this behavior they were able to run successful plunder plantations that resembled modern day factories. Until the end of the 18th century many sugar estates used the confederacy system. The owner treated hundreds of slaves as units of production. Many plantation owners had a very profitable and prosperous business, but it was expense of human lives.Slaves working in the sugar cane fields always faced the most brutal treatment. Due to the nature of can e farming, a lot of heaving lifting and back breaking black was necessary for many hours out of the da...